MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESS OF WORDS’ FORMATION - Onyeji Nnaji

CONTENS

(1) AFFIXATION

PREFIXATIONS

(i) Prefix A:

(ii) Prefix B:

(iii) prefix C:

(iv) Prefix D:

(V) Prefix E:

(1.2)    SUFFIXES

(i) Suffixes A:

(ii) Suffixes B:

(iii) Suffixes C:

(iv) Suffix D:

(2)   DERIVED MORPHEMES

(2.1)  Loaned Words

(2.1.1) Loaned Words from Greek

(2.1.2) Loaned Words from Latin

(2.1.3) Words of French Origin

(2.1.4)Words of African Origin

(2.2) Duplications

(2.2.1) Reduplication

(2.2.2) Doubly

(2.2.3) Phrasal doublies

                                                                          AFFIXATION

The grammatical composition of every language depends richly on the possible patterning which such language has acquired or received from its morphological formation and combinations. English language, as well as every other language, has its morphological formation and combination – a set of patterning which it acquired through its morphological processes – derive from where its grammar is inferred. This serves as the basic because every language - spoken or written - is composed of the universal strata, stretching from sentences to words which in turn comprised one or more morphemes.   

   

Morphemes have been identified as the minimal grammatical unit with which words are formed. Some linguists interpreted morphemes as units of sounds. This assertion may be correct semantically. It is very dicey to accept this idea completely except it is subjected to scientific tests since some sounds do not establish a better syntagmatic relationship. For instance, “A” and “P” are two letters representing the sounds /æ/ or /a: / and the consonant /P/. The former which is a vowel can represent/serve as a morpheme only in two either senses, while /P/ cannot serve as a morpheme. Instances where such obtains are, when the sound represents an article (in which case it stands alone in a sentence as a word), and when it represents a unit of sound which suggests exclamation. Another sound which has been observed in the study of syntax as a bound morpheme is the vowel /ǝ/, representing -er and -or bound suffixes.

On this note, I see morphemes rather as the minimal grammatical units into which a word can be structurally divided and meaningfully combined. For instance, the word “Unlikely” can be structurally divided into un-like-ly. The meaningful aspect of these fragmented words lies on their structural combinations. The art or the act of combining these structures into meaningful words or their divisions into constituent structures are referred to as the morphological process. Morphology therefore, is the study of the structuring – the combination and divisibility – of morphemes in their meaningful ways to form words. Several morphological processes are involved in these combinations according to the nature of words. In this aspect of the study, we shall examine morphological processes in the light of two words: Affixation and derivation of morphemes.

           

In morphology, words are considered in line with the number of the morphemes they are comprised. Words composed of one or more consonants and a vowel are referred to as a word of one morpheme. Example of these includes. Come (k˄m/, of /ǝv/, to /tu/, comb/kǝum/, womb/wu:m/ etc. These are different from words like record/rekↄ:d/, remove/rimu:v/, remix/rimiks/, relate/rileit/ etc. these are, by their nature, words of two morphemes. There are also words like, institutionalize /institju:ʃǝnalaiz/, computation /kǝmpju:teiʃn/ and communication /kǝmju:nikeiʃn/. All these are words of various morphemes different from the other. We shall see how this attachment is done and achieved among words.   

Affixation is the process through which words are created by adding one or more morphemes at the front of a word or behind the word. Words or morphemes added in the front are called prefixes, while those added from behind are referred to as suffixes. It is simply explained thus:

                                               

Roots refer to those core morphemes upon which other morphemes depend for meaningful combination. The base, the very heart of the word on which other morphemes are appended is called the root. The word “commercialisation” has its root at “commercial”. When we add -ize to it, it becomes a stem for the suffix -ation. A stem of any word on this ground refers to the word which embodies the appendage of the last morpheme.

           

Affixation as a process of word formation depends richly on the role of affixes in creating new words. As have been clarified earlier, affixes that appear before words are called prefixes while those that appear behind are called suffixes. One remarkable feature of affixes is that their inclusion changes the meaning of their root words, sometimes slightly, while in many occasions it gives the opposite meaning of the root of the word.

PREFIXATIONS:

The English language as a tool in the hand of language users has developed a good number of prefixes which have contributed in word creations. Some of the prefixes are exemplified below:

(A)       - Those that create opposite of meaning. These are realised through the following prefixes.

(i):-      de - /di/ such as

            Moralize         -           demoralize    

            Motion            -           demotion       

            Compress       -           decompress

            Increase         -           decrease

            Form               -           deform          

            Efficiency        -           deficiency

            Emphasis        -           de emphasize

            Congest          -           decongest

Grade              -           degrade         

Control           -           decontrol      

Segregate       -           desegregate

Criminalize     -           decriminalize

Ascend            -           descend         

(ii):-     Dis:

            Mount-            dismount

            Place   -           displace

            Agree  -           disagree

            Engage-          disengage

            Like     -           dislike

            Count  -           discount

            Respect-         disrespect

            Repute-           disrepute

           

(iii)      im - /im/ as in (this is used mainly before words beginning with the letter “p”)

Patient-           impatient - /im/

Pious   -           impious

Potent -           impotent

Perishable-     imperishable

Penetrable-    impenetrable

Permeable-    impermeable

Mobile-           immobile

Mortal-           immortal

(iv)      in- /in/ as in:

            Appropriate   -           inappropriate

            Decent                        -           indecent

            Elastic             -           inelastic

            Audible           -           inaudible

            Congruous     -           incongruous

            Fallible            -           infallible

            Dependent     -           independent

            Credible          -           incredible

(v)       il - /il/ as in: (used mainly before words beginning with L)

            Legal               -           illegal

            Logical            -           illogical

            Literate           -           illiterate

            Legitimate      -           illegitimate

            Legitimacy      -           illegitimacy

            Literacy          -           illiteracy

            Legible            -           illegible

(vi)      un -  as in:

            Compromised -          uncompromised

            Belief              -           unbelief

            Healthy           -           unhealthy

            Conditional    -           unconditional

            Conscious       -           unconscious  

            Veiled             -           unveiled

            Invite              -           uninvited

            Predictable     -           unpredictable

(B) Prefixes B are those prefixes that do not indicate direct opposite of the meaning of their root words. They rather indicate a little deviation which cannot be completely regarded as opposite of meaning. Some express antecedent or past.

(i)        Ex - /ǝks/ as in:

            Minister-          ex-minister

            Governor-      ex-governor

            President-      ex-president

            Officials-         ex-officials

            Leader  -         ex-leader

            Convict -         ex-convict

(ii)       Mis - /mis/ as in:

            Spelt    -           misspelt

            Rule    -           misrule

            Understand-   misunderstand

            Pronounced-  mispronounced

            Conduct-         misconduct

            Count  -           miscount

Direct  -           misdirect

            Calculate-       miscalculate

            Use      -           misuse

(C)      Prefixes C are those prefixes used to indicate precedents or actions in front. They introduce the action of their root words and announce them clearly.

(i)        Pre (before) -           as in:

            Intend             -           pre-intend

            Marital            -           premarital

            Eminence       -           pre-eminence

            Independent  -           pre-independent

            Fix                   -           prefix

            Occupation     -           preoccupation

            Occupy            -           preoccupy

(ii)       Pro- /prǝu/ as in:

            Claim               -           proclaim

            Fuse                -           profuse

            Motion            -           promotion

            Vision             -           provision

Position          -           preposition

(D)      Prefixes D are those that connote repetition of actions.

            re - /re/ as in:

            Commend       -           recommend

            Duplicate        -           reduplicate

            Publish           -           republish

            Print                -           reprint

            Mind               -           remind

            Place               -           replace

(E)      Prefix E, those that express the after effect of their roots or

(i)        post - /pǝust/ as in:

            Independence-          post independence

            Structural       -           post structural

            Graduate        -           post graduate

            Card                -           post card

            Code               -           post code

            Doctoral         -           post doctoral

            Modernism    -           post modernism

            Natal               -           post natal

            Script              -           post script

            War                 -           post war

(ii)       Neo – (new) as in:

            Colonialism    -           neo colonialism

            Classic             -           neo classic

            Natal               -           neonatal

We also have this prefix functioning with other roots to change their forms and meaning. Example includes:

Logic               -           neologism

            Lithium           -           Neolithic etc.

(1.2)    SUFFIXES

            This is another form of affixation. In this case, the morphemes attached to their root words are placed behind the words.

(A)       Suffixes A, Adjectival affixes are added to serve as post modifiers of the root words.

(i)        -LY / Li/ as in:

            Leisure           -           leisurely

            Love                -           lovely

            Friend             -           friendly

            Earth               -           earthly

            Scholar           -           scholarly

            Coward           -           cowardly

            Elder               -           elderly

(ii)       - ish / iʃ/. This is added to proper nouns to express nationality, condition of health or behaviour, or to express language or quality.

            Jew                  -           Jewish

            Sweden           -           Swedish

            Turkey            -           Turkish

            England          -           English

            Devil               -           devilish

            Grey                -           greyish

            Fever              -           feverish

            Young             -           youngish

            Clown             -           clownish

            Sheep              -           sheepish

(iii)     -like /læik/ & -some /s˄m/: These are used with their roots to express semblance, state, exploration and habitual actions etc.

            Irk                   -           irksome

            Loathe            -           loathsome

            Worry             -           worrisome

            Burden           -          burdensome

            Trouble          -          troublesome

            Hand               -           handsome

            Whole             -           wholesome

            War                 -           warlike

            Christ              -           Christ like

            Business         -           businesslike

            God                 -           godlike

            Life                  -           lifelike

(B)      -hood /hu:d/. Suffixes B are noun suffixes used to indicate position or gender.        

            Man                 -           manhood

            Woman           -           womanhood

            Father             -           fatherhood

            Parent             -           parenthood

            Knight             -           knighthood

            Likely              -           likelihood

            Brother          -           brotherhood

            Child               -           childhood

            Mother           -           motherhood

            Neighbour      -           neighbourhood

            Boy                 -           boyhood

            Widow            -           widowhood

(C) Suffixes C are some affixes whose root words are mainly adjectives. They are affixes that serve as post modifiers in a comparative manner.

            Root               -/ǝ/                 -/est/

            Wide               -wider             -widest

            Broad             -broader         -broadest

            Long               -longer            -longest

            Happy             -happier         -happiest

            Soon               -sooner           -soonest

            Small               -smaller          -smallest

(D) Suffix D is formed through the use of allomorph. This refers to the variant form of morphemes. The concept explains the comprehension of phonological variations for specific morphemes. It occurs when a unit of meaning varies in sounds in different instances without changing in their meaning. Allomorphs inflect their roots for, mainly, two results: for plural (numbers) marking and past marking. These are marked with the use of such morphemes as -/ǝn/, -/ǝ/, -/in/ -/s/, -/z/, -/iz/ and /ŋ/.

Contrast in identical distributional environments may be however treated as sub morphemic items if the difference in the meaning of the allomorphic reflections meets the distribution of their forms. Take for instance, the following words: maps, hoes, lavae, memoranda, children and oxen, having the following allomorphs /s/, /z/, /i:/, /ǝ/, /rǝn/ and /in/, may be considered to have a common semantic distributiveness, although they are distinctively different in their phonemic forms which may be very difficult to define phonemically. These differences are discovered to be complementary in their distributions. This is because, where one form appears the other cannot appear fittingly well.

/s/ and -ed allomorphs vary consistently in their different position mainly in sounds and root wholly in both meaning and spellings. Instances of such conditions are exemplified below.

/s/                  /z/                  /Iz/

Cuts                 rides               passes

Stops               boys                washes

Sings               watches           laughs

Comes             judges             takes

-ed varies as follow:

/t/                   /d/                  /id/

Kicked             phoned           planted                      

Laughed         arranged        manipulated

Dropped         turned                        manifested

Looked           behaved         spotted

Passed                        accused          shouted

Fetched          adored            defended

Asked              buzzed            promoted

From the above example, “e” is realised with the vowel /i/ in the third examples. In the first position, (-ed) was completely deleted and replaced with the consonant /t/; yet in all these variations, their meanings and spellings were never affected.

                   (2)   DERIVED MORPHEMES
Many morphemes tend to change the form-class (part of speech) of their inflected roots from one form to another. For example, the word exalt is naturally a verb, but when -ation inflects it the form-class will change from verbs to nouns. When this is achieved in the process of word formation we say that a derivation has occurred. It is possible for another derivational affix to follow another one in a particular word in the English language. In the word naturalisation, for instance, the derivational suffix -al succeeded nature to give us the word natural. Then the derivational suffix /aiz/ follows, as also another derivational suffix -/eiʃn/ succeeded them to give us the word, naturalisation. Derivational suffixes can also go with inflectional morpheme. Inflectional suffixes are those suffixes that appear at the end of words; they are significant for grammatical roles. They are used to show tenses and pluralities among different roots, but they do not bring about changes of words from one part of speech to another.

From the second example above it is obvious that derivative morphemes inflect their roots to change from one form-class to another. The fluctuation or movement of the root in response to each of the suffixes are explained in the table below.

	Nouns	Verbs	Adjectives
Nature	+	-	-
Natural	+	-	+
Naturalize	-	+	-
Naturalisation	+	-	-

The table clarifies the sense of derivation in the meaning and answers the questions about the movement of inflected roots to different form-classes. It is needful to clarify here that this movement is not a universal condition for every derived words. Exceptional cases abound for some roots. Good examples of such impeccable words are “nation, national, nationalist and nationalism.” Each of the words has one or more derived morphemes but their roots refuse to move or change its form-class. This is the only root is found so far in the English language that can be inflected to four forms without any change of form-class (part of speech).

Movement is one remarkable feature that characterizes derivational morphemes. It may be movement across form-class as exemplified in the table above, movement within different suffixes as shown in the preceding paragraph, movement across languages as shall be discussed in progress, or movement as a result of duplications of the roots or the roots and related words of closer phonological tie respectively. As the root moves in consonance with any of the steps above, the resultant word will either increase or decrease. Various forms of derivations are examined below:

 (2.1)  Loaned Words:

English language has developed influences from other languages. The influences had resulted from the encounter of the English tradition with the characters dominant in the tradition of other nations which has directly affected the original English language tradition over time. Following this condition, many vocabularies belonging to the languages of the involved nations were borrowed and wedded to the English language. This circumstance is clarified in the background of the book, The Semiology of Syntax. The languages involved in this loaning include Greek, Latin and French mainly.

(2.1.1) Loaned Words from Greek:

Root	Meaning	English derivatives
a/an	Without, not.	Agnostic, ahistorical, anaemia, anaesthesia, anonymous, apathy, asymmetric, atrophic,
Abac	Reckoning, board used for counting votes	Abacus, abacus, abax etc.
Abyss	Bottomless	Abyss, abyssal, abyssocottidae, abyssopelagic etc.
Angel	Messenger	Angel
Hagio	Holy	Hagiography, hagiology etc.
Ankur	Anchor	Anchoring, anchor, ankyrin etc.
Ankon	Elbow	Ancona, ancon, anconal etc.
Agro	Tilled land	Agrobiology, agrology, agronomy etc.
Adamant	Unconquerable	Adamant
Adolph	Brother	Adolphous, monodelphous etc.
Od/ed	Singing	Comedy, ode, rhapsody, parody, comedian etc.
Aero/air	Air	Airship, aeroplane, aerobatic, aerobics etc.
Athlet	Contesting in the games	Athletic, athlete etc.
Aesthet	Sensitive, perceptive	Aesthetic, Aesthetism, Aesthete etc.
Acro	Topmost, optimal	Acromantula, akron, acrobat etc.
Alpha	First/beginning	Alphabet.
Amazon	Female warrior	Amazon, amazonia, amazonite etc.
Anagog	Spiritual uplift	Anagoge, anagogy etc.
Analy	Loosen, simplify	Analysis, analytic, analyse etc.
Axio	Worthy	Axiological, axiomatisation, axiom, axiological etc.
Apo	Away from	Apology, apostrophe, apocalypse, Apocrypha etc.
Biblio	Book	Bible, bibliography, bibliographer, bibliotherapy etc.
Bio	Life	Biology, biomass, biography, biome etc.
Geo	Earth	Geography, georeference etc.
Gam	Marriage	Monogamy, polygamy, bigamy etc.
Gen	Birth	Genetic, genesis, gene etc.
Glott	Tongue	Glottis, epiglottis etc.
Deka	Ten	Decade, decagon etc.
Demo	People, power	Democracy, demagogy, demography etc.
Ego	Me, I, mine	Ego, egocentrism, egocentric etc
Zoo	Animal	Zoo, zoology, protozoa etc.
Helio	Sun	Heliography, heliotropism, helium etc.
Thron	An elevated seat	Throne, enthronement etc.

(2.1.2) Loaned Words from Latin:

Roots	Meaning	Derived English
Alacre	Quick	Alacrity, allegro etc.
Ali	Other	Alias, alibi, alien, inalienable etc.
Alve		Alveolar, alveolus, postalveolar etc.
Ampl	Ample	Amplification, amplifier, amplitude etc.
Anim	Mind, anger	Animosity, unanimous etc.
Ann	Year	Annual, annuity, biannual, biennial etc.
Art	Skill	Artefact, artifice, artificial, artisan etc.
Arm	Weapon	Army, armour, armature, armada etc.
Avi	Bird	Aves, avian, aviation etc.
Aur	Ear	Aural, auricle, auricular, auriform etc.
Bell	War	Belligerent, antebellum, bellic, bellicose, rebel, rebellion, revel, imbellic, bellicosity etc.
Ben	Good	Benediction, benedictory, benefactor, benefit, benign, benignity etc.
Optim	Best	Optimal, optimist, optimism etc.
Melior	Better	Ameliorate etc.
Bin	Two each	Binary, combination, recombination, recombinant etc.
Brev	Brief, short	Abbreviate, abbreviation, bravery, brevity etc.
Capit	Head	Capital, capitulate, decapitated, captain, cadet, capitol etc.
Carn	Flesh	Carnal, carnality, cannibal, reincarnation, incarnate etc.
Cas	House	Casino, castle etc.
Celer	Quick	Accelerate, celerity, acceleration, accelerator etc.
Circ	Circle	Circle, circular, circulation, circus etc.
Civ	Citizen	Civil, civilisation, civilian etc.
Cord	Heart	Accord, concordance, cordial, core, discord, record etc.
Cras	Tomorrow	Procrastination, procrastinate etc,
Die	Day	Diary, dial, meridian etc.
Dign	Worthy	Dignity, indignation, dignify, indignant, indignity etc.
Domin	Lord	Dominion, domination, domain, dominate etc.
Fam	Hunger	Famine, famished etc.
Flo	Flower	Flora, florid, flourish, fluorescent etc.
Form/formul	Shape, form	Conformity, deformity, formula, inform, formulate, formulation, perform, reform, reformation, informative etc.
Grad	Step	Gradual, graduate, gradually, gratify, gradient etc.
Herb	Grass	Herbal, herbalist, herbivorous, herbicide etc.
Hum	Ground	Humid, exhume, humility, inhumane, humane, humiliation etc.
Lax	Loose	Relax, laxity, relaxation etc.
Line	Line	Lineage, align, linear etc.
Plum	Feather	Plume, plumage etc.
Sign	Mark, sign	Assignment, consign, design, designation, signification, significant, resignation, reassignment etc.
Sole	One, only	Sole, solitary, solitude, solo etc.
Termin	Boundary	Terminal, determination, termination, exterminate, determine, determinant etc.
Test	Witness	Protest, protestant, detestable, attest, attestation, testimony, testifier etc.
Vacu	Empty	Vacuum, vacuous etc.
Voc	Voice	Vocabulary, vocal, revoke, vouch, avowal, advocacy etc.

(2.1.3) Words of French Origin:

Prominent among the terms invented into English from French are considered in the table below. These words either have French origin or that they were coined by French inventors.

Names of some exotic animals	Warfare and military terms	Political lexicon or jargon	Judiciary lexicon or diplomacy.
lion, leopard antelope, giraffe, camel, camel, zebu, elephant, baboon, dolphin, ocelot, ostrich, chameleon.	battalion, dragon, infantry, army, artillery, corvette, musketeer, carabineer, pistol, fusilier, squad, squadron, platoon, brigade, corps, sortie, reconnaissance, surveillance, rendezvous, espionage, volley, siege, terrain, troop, camouflage, logistics, accoutrements, bivouac, morale, spirit-de-corps, aid-de-camp etc.	Liberalism, capitalism, materialism, nationalism, coup d’état, plebiscite, regime, sovereignty etc.	Attorney, court, jury, case, justice etc. Protocol, passport, alliance, accord, rapprochement, entente, memoire, détente, communiqué, diplomacy, chancery, embassy, envoy etc.

Some military ranks or rankings are undoubtedly traced to French. Some of them include admiral, lieutenant, colonel, captain, general, sergeant etc. The influence of the French language has also marked the domain of the arts: surrealism, impressionism, fauvism, cubism, symbolism, art nouveau, gouache, aquarelle, college, grisaille etc.

Other examples include colour names: violet, beige, carmine, maroon, blue, orange, vermilion, turquoise, lilac, scarlet, cerise etc. Vegetables or fruits like cabbage, carrot, sherry, chestnut, nutmeg, quince, lemon, orange, apricot etc. Months of the year: January, March, May, July, November, December.

Some of the French words that made their ways into the English language were coined by French inventors, discoverers or pioneers in some field of academic studies, or scientists. We can find in English language, words like cinema, television, helicopter, aviation, parachute, bathyscaphe, lactose, chlorophyll, mastodon, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, photograph, thermometer, stethoscope etc.

Terms that most recently entered the English language have kept French pronunciation and spelling. Some may be disputed about their French origin, but evidence from their autograph made them French. Among such words are barrage, bureau, dossier, machine, garage, mirage, café, décor, bourgeoisie, espionage, elite, expertise, intrigue, armoire, critique, genre, ambiance, college, montage, plaque, penchant, repertoire, entourage, terrain, debris, glacier, financier, comprehend etc.

(2.1.4)Words of African Origin:

Dialects in the United States resulted from different waves of immigration of English speakers’ contact with other languages. Terms from Africa got woven into the English language through the event of the trans-Atlantic slavery. This consequently had a profound impact on African American English. Slave trade took a large number of people from various parts of Africa into the United States, thereby carrying African tradition alongside. Before the advent of slavery, in the early 1600's, immigrants from Southeastern England began arriving on the North American continent. Other immigrants were a group of expunged puritans sailed from England in the reign of Charles I. Among this latter group was Mary Rolanson. Detail of this immigration wave is related in the account of Mary Rolanson. By the mid-1800's, 3.5 million immigrants left the British Isles for the United States.

The American English language is characterized by archaisms (words that changed meaning in Britain, but remained in the colonies) and innovations in vocabulary (borrowing from French and Spanish who were also settling in North America). Noah Webster was the most vocal campaigner about the need for an American national identity with regards to the American English language. He wrote an American spelling book, The Blueback Speller, in 1788 and changed several spellings from British English (for instance, colour became color, theatre became theater, etc.) In 1828, he published his famous American Dictionary of the English Language. From Africa came the following terms:

Words	Suspected origin
Banana	West Africa.
Bozo	West Africa
Boogie	Sierra Leone
Okra	Igbo language
Chimp	Tshiluba language
Chimpanzee
Cola	West Africa
Hip	Wolof
Jazz	West Africa
Kwashiorkor	West Afric
Jumbo
Mojo
Okay	Wolof
Samba
Voodoo	West Africa
Yam	West Africa
Funk	Kikongo
Tilapia
Tsetse	Bantu
Zebra	Congo
Zombie	Central Africa etc.

(2.2) Duplications:

These are other ways through which words are formed through derivation. The process involved here is simply, recreation. The words could be partially recreated or completely recovered for a second time, thereby allowing for the duplication of the word as a whole or a slant duplication involving a mutational change (only in the vowels). When such a slant change occurs during this process, we say that the word is being reduplicated. When the process involves a reproduction of the word wholly, we say that a doubly has occurred. These processes are discussed in progress.  

(2.2.1)    Reduplication.

Reduplication refers to the process of deriving new words through the repetition of the properties of the first word also in the second word in a manner of compounding. In this process, the property may be consonant and vowel sounds. These include:

Zig – zag

Tick – tack

Bow – wow

Hanky – panky

Walkie – talkie

Helter – skelter

Willy – Nilly

Rick – rose

Riff – raff

See – saw

Wishy – washy

Sing – song

Razzle – dazzle

Nitty – gritty

Man – made

(2.2.2)    Doubly.

The term, doubly, as a relative tool for language analysis was invented by Nnaji (2013) to analyse the set of grammatical features which allow for absolute replications. Nnaji achieves this in his attempts to analyse the syntax of Nkalaha version of the Igbo language. In a paper submitted to the International Symposium on Language, Linguistics, Literature and Education held in Osaka; Japan 2013, Nnaji defined a doubly as follows:

A doubly or collection of doublies, as a language feature, refers to a spontaneous duplication of certain words in a relatively ungrammatical style. In this, lexical properties (especially verbs) such as follow, look, talk, copy etc. are adversely duplicated as follow-follow, look-look, talk-talk, copy-copy etc. as was the situation with pidgin. This duplication in Pidgin English is considered ungrammatical in Standard English, whereas in Nkalaha dialect it is duly grammatical.

Nnaji attempts to express the situation that prevails in the use of language for colloquial purposes where several words or phrases are realised through coinages which often times are replicated in everyday conversations. In this manner, a peculiar kind of coinage – a language feature that is prominent in Pidgin English – is purposefully invented and used in conversations mainly to spur humour and to ridicule certain actions or characterisations. Sometimes they are not used purposefully. This becomes the situation when they occur extemporaneously. When words are used in a manner that they are ungrammatically duplicated for emphases – such as follow-follow, look-look, touch-touch, waka-waka, beg-beg, borrow-borrow etc. – Nnaji refers to such word groupings as doublies.

Doublies can take varying forms. They may assume the place of action words, nomenclature or as phrases. These three forms are discussed as follow.

(a) Doublies derived from nouns/pronouns:

Tummy – Tummy

Mee – Mee

Goody – Goody

Wee – wee

(b) Derived from verbs:

Talk – Talk

Look – Look

Read – Read.

(c) Doublies from other parts of speech:

Very – very

Many – many

Now – now

Small – small

(d) Phrasal doublies:

Phrasal doublies are realised through the assistance of some adverbial particles, mainly prepositions, mediating among nouns. Examples of such doublies include:

Time – to – time = consistency or periodically.

One – by – one = serial, queue 

Line – by – line = one after the other/orderly.

Man – to – man = confrontation.

Strength – to – strength = manfully, challenge.

Bone – to – bone = a show of strength.

House – to – house = one after the other.

Hand – to – hand = transfer, exchange.

Hand – in – hand  = collection/collectiveness.

Face –to – face = meeting someone, confrontation.

Head – to –head = census.

Seat – to – seat = serial positions.

Road –to – road = endless movement, aimless movement etc

Room – to – room = from on room to another.

Word – to – word = in bits.

Ward – to – ward = from one ward to another.

Pole – to – pole = numbering, calculation.

One – on – one  = meeting someone, confrontation.